Epictetus (in Greek: ????????? ) (Hierapolis, 55 - Nicopolis, 135) was a Greek philosopher, from the Stoic school, who lived part of his life as a slave in Rome. As far as it is known, he left no written work, but from his teachings an Enchyridion or 'Manual' are preserved, and some Discourses, edited by his disciple Flavio Arriano.

Epictetus, a philosopher from the Stoic school, was born in 50 AD in Hierapolis, city of Rome, freed from the liberated Epaphrodite, this secretary of Nero; Its motto is "Abstain from passions, affections and opinions."

Epictetus, more than a philosopher, was a moralist, focused more on practice than theory and thought, for example, that where man should prove his worth was in everyday life, in contrast to reality. He tried to offer his disciples an adequate path to achieve personal happiness. Only if we do the right thing can a full and happy life be achieved. But how do we know what is right? We have to learn to distinguish what we can change, and thus know how to improve. But there are many things that we cannot change, so we have only to accept them. Learning to accept them we will be happy, but we must also make good use of "representations" or ideas and thus distinguish what is useful from what is not.

Living beings come to the world with the ability to form representations or ideas about the reality that surrounds us. These representations can cause in us desire or rejection, impulse or repulsion, denial or suspension of judgment. Thus, the goal of philosophy is to teach men to make proper use of representations . Good and evil affect the most important, best and most noble part of the human being: agency, which is the capacity of choice that each human being has. To make good choices, Epictetus said that one had to learn to distinguish between true goods (having desires, feeling impulses and accepting or denying rationally according to the good of agency) and apparent goods (health, wealth, social position, etc.). ).

Epictetus proposed two models: Socrates and Diogenes. For him, these two characters represent the model of the Stoic wise, knowledgeable of the truth, imperturbable, always right in their judgments and their behaviors, models that Epictetus considered unable to reach and that his disciples would hardly reach.

...

The author takes us, fundamentally, by the logical application of the stools, derived from:

"Some things that exist in the world depend on us, others do not, "

“Our actions depend on us (opinions, inclinations, desires and dislikes), on us they do not depend on what is not our own action (body, goods, reputation, honor)”,

"The things that depend on us are by nature free, nothing can stop them or hinder them, those that do not depend on us are weak, slaves, dependents, subject to a thousand obstacles and a thousand inconveniences, and entirely alien."

Maintaining the principle according to which only what depends on us is competent, therefore, we are not only free, by nature, but nothing that is not of our desire, concerns us, that is, nothing moves us from the place chosen for live as long as we are subject to this desire. Freedom does not exist except in the sense of "freeing oneself from their own nonsense, " that is, everything that does not depend on us. There is, however, another way to choose: that of wealth, honors, and competitions;

The path of being recognized and loved by others. In such a case, the person must abide by the three consequences of his choice, a consequence that is none other than that of humiliation and chaos.

The choice of the path of self-recognition of desire carries freedom.

The choice of the path of the desire for recognition, carries with it, though, riches and honors. These are just tinsel, with which chaos and suffering are covered.

Neither way is easy. The author, prudently and beautifully leads to the path of recognition of desire and by staying there, in that place, giving examples, calling for what other authors, such as Socrates, for example, have said, and making their own elaborations from those. The path by which he invites, is not achieved, without knowing himself, one would say, is a constant knowing about himself, which leads to a knowledge about others.

In short, you have to read the text, let yourself go through teaching, and draw your own conclusions. This is what the reader is summoned to.

...

INQUIRIDION

(or Epictetus Manual)

1. There are things that are under our control and others that are not. Under our control are opinions, preferences, desires, aversions and, in a word, everything that is inherent in our actions. Out of our control is the body, the riches, the reputation, the authorities and, in a word, everything that is not inherent in our actions.

What we control is free by nature and cannot be prevented or imposed on any man; but what we do not control is weak, servile, limited, and subject to an alien power. Remember, then, that you will be harmed if you consider free and yours what by nature is servile and alien. You will be sorry, you will be confused, and you will end up blaming the gods and men for your misfortune.
On the contrary, no one can prevent you or impose something if you consider yours only what really belongs to you and others who in fact belong to others. That way, you won't criticize anyone or accuse anyone; you will not do anything against your will, you will not have enemies and you will not suffer any damage.

If you want really great goods, remember that you should not allow yourself the desire - not even a slight one - to achieve minor things. On the contrary, you must completely give up certain things and postpone others for the moment. Because, if you want to own both large and inconsequential goods, such as power and wealth, you will not get these last and
you will lose the first ones too; you will absolutely fail to obtain the true indispensable means to achieve happiness and freedom.

Therefore, make the effort to be able to say in the face of each adversity: You are not more than appearance; you are not at all what you seem to be. And then examine that adversity with the rules you have for it; mainly by allowing you to establish whether it concerns the things that are under your control or if it concerns those that are not; and, if it has to do with something that doesn't depend
from you, get ready to say you don't care.

2. Remember that giving in to desire implies the possibility of obtaining what you want to achieve while aversion may lead you to dispense with what you want to avoid. And as he who is frustrated in what he wishes is miserable, so miserable is he who falls into what he would most like to avoid. Therefore, you will never fall for what you hate if you limit your aversion to only those things that are contrary to the natural use of your faculties, since these faculties are under your control. But it will be
unfortunate if you dislike what does not depend on you, such as illness, death or poverty. Remove, then, your aversion to all things that are beyond your control and transfer your rejection to those that are contrary to the nature of what you control and depend on you. Suddenly, it suppresses all intense desire; because if you want things that do not depend on you, it is sure that you will be frustrated and if you want those that depend on you and that it would be laudable to have, warn that you are not yet prepared to have them . Therefore, if you want to proceed correctly, approach them so that you can retire whenever you want, and still do it with measure and discretion.

3. As for any object that causes you pleasure, that is useful or that you love deeply, starting with the most insignificant things, do not forget to consider what its nature is. For example, if you appreciate a special ceramic cup, understand that it is the ceramic cups in general that you appreciate. In this way, if it breaks you, it will not alter you. In the same way,
If you kiss your son or your wife, remember that everything you kiss is deadly and in this way you will not despair if death takes you away.

4. Before taking any action, be clear about the kind of action you are about to take. If you have resolved to go to the public,
represent the things that usually happen in those bathrooms: some people splash with water, others push themselves, some use improper language and others steal. Therefore you will perform this action in a safer way if you say to yourself: I will go to the public toilet, but I will keep my mind in accordance with the natural way of living that I have proposed. ”Proceed in this way in everything you undertake; because in this way, if any inconvenience happens to you during the bath you can say firmly: “I have not only come to bathe but also to keep my mind in a state according to nature, and I could not do so if I allow
I am disturbed by the things that happen here. ”

5. It is not things that torment men but the principles and opinions that men form about them. Death, for example, is not terrible; if it were, it would have seemed so to Socrates. What makes death horrible is the terror we feel for the opinion we have formed of it. Consequently, if we find ourselves hindered, disturbed or distressed, we never blame others but our own opinions. An ignorant will blame others for their own misery. Someone who begins to be instructed will blame himself. Someone perfectly instructed will not reproach himself, nor others.

6. Do not strut with some excellence that is not your own. If a horse could say "I am beautiful", that would be tolerable. But if you are proud and say "I have a beautiful horse" keep in mind that, in fact, you are boasting only of a quality that is of the horse. What, then, is yours? Only your reaction to the appearance of things. Therefore, if you consider things according to their nature and behave accordingly, then you can be proud with reason; because it will give you pride a good that really belongs to you.

7. Imagine that, while on board, the ship is anchoring and you disembark. If you go to the beach to get water, you could entertain yourself along the way by gathering clams or mushrooms. But your thoughts and attention should be on the ship, waiting for the captain's call; because before that call you should leave immediately what entertains you, is not something that you
Come find and throw you on board tied hand and foot like a lamb. In life the same thing happens. If it is given to you by a wife or a child it is good that you love them and enjoy them. But if the captain calls, you will have to leave them and go to the ship without looking back. And if you're old, never get away from the ship; it will not happen that they call you and you are not in a position to introduce yourself.

8. Do not demand that things happen as you wish. Try to desire them as they happen and everything will happen according to your wishes.

9. Illness is an impediment of the body, but not of your free will; unless you decide it is. If you are reluctant, it is your leg that is impeded; not your will Consider this in relation to everything that happens and you will see that these obstacles are not an impediment for you, even if they are for others.

10. Before each event ask yourself what skills you have to master it. If you see an attractive woman, you will find that self-control is the ability you have to master desire. If you feel pain, you will find that you have the strength. If you are insulted, you will find patience. Getting used to acting in this way will not be dragged by the appearance of things.

11. Never say "I have lost it" but "I have returned it." Has your son died? You have returned it to whoever gave it to you. Has your wife died? You have returned it to the one who gave it to you. Have your properties been taken away? That too you have restored. "But - you will say - the one who took them from me is a bad person." And what do you care about what hands you put back what He gave you? While I have given it to you, take care of it, but do not consider it yours, in the same way that the traveler does not consider yours the inn where you are staying.

12. If you want to be better, reject reasoning such as: “If I neglect my affairs, I will have no income; if I do not correct my servant, it will be bad. ”It is better to die with hunger, free of sorrows and fears, than to live in abundance but unbalanced; and it is better that your servant be bad that you are miserable.

Start, therefore, with small things. Have you spilled some oil? Have they stolen some wine? Think about the following: “This is the price of serenity and tranquility; and nothing is free in this life. ”If you call your servant, he may not come; And if it comes, you may not do what you want. But in no way is your servant as important as
to grant him the power to alter you in any way.

13. If you want to be better, accept being considered extravagant and silly about external things. Don't pretend to believe
that you know everything; And even if you seem to be someone important, distrust yourself. Because it is difficult to maintain the ability to live according to nature and acquire external things at the same time. You can't do the one without
disregard the other.

14. If you want your children, your wife or your friends to live forever, you are stupid since you intend to control things you cannot and you want things that belong to others. Similarly, if you want your servant not to have faults, you are ridiculous, because you want vice not to be vice. But if you want your desires not to be frustrated, that depends on you. Therefore exercise what is under your control. He will have power over others who can give what others want and take away what others hate. Therefore, whoever wants to be free, must get used to having no desire or dislike of anything that depends on the power of others. Otherwise, it will necessarily be a slave.

15. Remember that in life you should behave like a banquet. Do you offer anything? Extend your hand and take your part in moderation. Have you passed by? Do not stop it. Not yet offered? Do not extend your desire towards it; Wait for it to come to you. Do this in relation to children, wife, public office, wealth, and you will become a worthy participant of the banquet of the gods. But if you don't even take the things that others put before you and can reject them, you will not only be a participant of the banquet of the gods but also of their Empire. Because precisely to do this is that Diogenes and Heraclitus were, justly, called divine.

16. If you see someone lamenting in anguish because their child has gone away, or has died, or because they have suffered a loss in their
properties, make sure appearances don't fool you. Instead, distinguish what has been observed with your mind and be prepared to say: “It is not the fact that afflicts this person since it only afflicts him and not another; what torments him is the opinion he has conceived about what happened. ”Then, when you speak, don't get at his level and by the way don't join his regrets. But
don't regret inside yourself either.

17. Remember that you are the actor of a drama and play the role that the Author has wanted to confer upon you. It will be a long paper if he awarded it to you like that, and it will be short if he decided to give you a short paper. If he pleases you, you will act as a poor man, a cripple, a prince or a craftsman; and be sure to play that role naturally. Your mission is to play well the role assigned to you; Choosing that role is a function of another.

18. Do not be disturbed by the unfortunate croaking of a crow. Reflect immediately like this: “None of these things predict something; the prediction is for my petty body, or for my property, my reputation, or my children, or my wife. For me all auguries are good if I want it that way. Because whatever happens, it is in my power to take advantage of what happens for something fruitful. ”

Note :
The squawking of a crow at certain times was considered
a bad omen event.

19. You can be invincible by not accepting a fight whose victory is not under your control. Therefore, if you see someone
covered with honors or power, or that enjoys high esteem, or is favored in any other way, do not get carried away by appearances and do not consider it happy. Because, if the essence of good lies in the things we can control, there is no reason to give rise to jealousy and envy. For your part, do not wish to be general, or senator, or consul, but free; and the only way to achieve it is
belittling what we don't control.

20. Remember that you do not insult the one who insults or strikes; What insults is the criterion that establishes these actions as offensive. Therefore, if someone provokes you, keep in mind that it is your own opinion that is causing you. First, then, try not to get carried away by appearances. Because once you have gained time and given yourself a break, you will control yourself more easily.

21. Let death, exile, and all other things that seem terrible seem everyday before your eyes. But especially do not fear death and thus you will never have an ignoble thought or desire something with exaggeration.

22. If you have the firm intention of understanding philosophy, prepare yourself from the very beginning to laugh at you, to suffer the mockery of the crowd, to hear them say: “We have suddenly become a philosopher”, or: "Where did you get that arrogant attitude?" For your part, make sure you don't adopt, by the way, that arrogant attitude and hold on to things constantly.
that they do for your good, as someone whom God has ordained to remain in that position. Because remember the following: if you stay constant in your position, they will end up admiring you the same people who used to ridicule you; but yes
you let yourself be convinced by others, you will make a fool of yourself twice.

23. If, for the sake of pleasing others, your attention is ever turned on from the outside, be certain that you have ruined your lifestyle. Be informed, then, with being a philosopher in everything and behave like a philosopher if you want others to consider you as such; That will be enough for you.

24. Don't let the idea of ​​living in dishonor and of being nobody in any part worry you. Because, if not receiving honors were an evil, then others would have the power to make us miserable; and it is not like that, as neither can others force us to participate in something ignoble. Is it therefore your business to obtain power or to be admitted to a festival? No way.
After all, why lack of power or not be invited should it be a dishonor? Why should it be true that this is why you are no one anywhere? What you should be is someone so only in those things that are under your own control and in which your decision is what matters most.

But you will tell me so not to attend to my friends. What do you mean by that of attending? They will not get money from you, nor will you make them Roman citizens. And who has told you that these are things that are among those that are under your control and are not the business of others? Can someone give someone else what he himself does not have? Well you will tell me obtain them so that you can share them with the others Show me the way and I will get them. But if you want me to lose my own good so you can get something that is not good,
Consider how unfair and silly you are. Apart from that, what would you prefer: to have: a sum of money or a friend with loyalty and honor? Rather, help me to forge those qualities and don't ask me to commit acts for which I can lose them.

It is well you will tell me but by that means you will not contribute anything to the homeland. Again: What do you mean by that? Well, will you answer me that the city will have neither public nor public toilets? What does that mean? Nor does a blacksmith provide shoes, nor does a shoemaker supply weapons to the homeland. So it is enough that each one finely fulfills its own function.
Would you not do a service to the country by giving it another honest and loyal citizen? Of course I do. What place, then you ask me occupy in the State? Anyone you can perform with honor and loyalty. Because, if you lose those qualities because of the desire to be useful, what benefit will you get from the homeland of someone who has become disloyal and corrupt?

25. Have anyone sat at the table in a better place than yours? Have they greeted him first or taken his advice and not yours? If these things are good you should be glad that they have happened to the other, and if they are bad, do not feel distressed because they did not happen to you. Remember that if you do not use the same means that others use to acquire external things that are beyond your control, you cannot expect to be considered worthy of a participation equal to what they have. How could someone who does not frequent the house of any famous, who does not visit and who does not flatter the notables, get the same as who does all these things?

You will therefore be unfair and greedy if you are not willing to pay the price for which these favors are sold and you intend to obtain them for free. How much is lettuce sold? Let's say for fifty denarii. If someone pays that price and takes the lettuce while you, not paying it, you run out of it, do not imagine that the other has outdone you in something. Because, just like he has lettuce, you'll still have the fifty denarii you didn't spend. So, if you have not been invited to a person's banquet, it is because you have not paid the price at which that banquet is sold. And he sells it for flattery; he sells it for
obeisances Pay, then, that price if it suits you. But if you pretend not to pay the price and still receive the favors, you are a miser and a jerk. Do you think that if you lose that banquet, you get nothing in return? Well, quite the opposite: you get not to have flattered who you don't want to flatter and have not had to endure the treatment that conceited dispenses to those who visit.

26. The will of nature can be known by similar events. For example, if a neighbor's servant breaks a glass, or something similar, our tendency is to say: "These things happen." Be sure to react in the same way when it is your servant and your cup that breaks. Apply this in a similar way to more important events. He has
deceased the son or wife of someone else? Everyone will say in a case like this: "It's human destiny." But when it is the son himself who dies the exclamation is:
"Oh how miserable I am!" We should remember how the same news affects us when it comes to others.

27. Evil is in nature as a target set to teach us to succeed; Not to make us err.

28. If a person gave your body to the first stranger who crosses his path, by the way you would be angry. However, you have no qualms about surrendering your mind to confusion and mystification to anyone who has the whim of injuring you.

29. In any company, before acting, first consider the background and consequences. Otherwise, you will start with enthusiasm but, having not thought about the consequences, when any of them arise, you will shamefully give up. You will say: "I want to win in the Olympic Games." But consider what comes before and what follows; then, if it is for your good, rush the company. Think that you will have to respect the rules, submit to a diet, refrain from frivolities. At certain times, whether you like it or not, you will have to exercise your body whether it is hot or cold; You will not drink too cold water and sometimes it will not even come. In a word, you will have to give yourself to your teacher as if he were your doctor. Then, during the contest, they may throw you in a ditch, dislocate an arm, twist your ankle, swallow dust, whip you and in the end, you may lose victory. If you have evaluated all this and your determination remains firm, then go to the fight. Otherwise, keep in mind that you will act like the children who sometimes play the fighters, sometimes the gladiators, sometimes they act like they play a trumpet and sometimes they act as actors of a tragedy when they have seen any of these shows. Thus, you will also want to be a fighter once, another gladiator, now a philosopher, then a speaker, and with all your soul you will be nothing at all. Like a monkey, you will imitate everything you see and find pleasure in leaving one thing for another but they will all get fed up once they have become familiar. Because you have not started anything considering it in detail, neither after having studied the matter from all sides, or after having thoroughly analyzed it, but in a reckless manner and yielding to a mere whim.

Thus, some, when they have seen a philosopher and heard a man like Socrates speak (though, really: who could speak like him!), Suddenly they want to be philosophers too. Oh man, whoever you are! Consider first the question and then what your own nature is in a position to cope with. If you want to be a fighter, consider your shoulders,
your back, your thighs; because people are different and each one is made for something different. Do you think you can behave as you do and be a philosopher? Do you think you can be eating, drinking, getting angry and being unhappy as you are now? Well, no; you must learn to observe, you will have to work, you will have to make the best of certain tendencies of yours; you must leave friends; maybe bear that some servant despises you, that they laugh at you; that they relegate you in everything: in magistracies, in honors, in the courts or in the judiciary.

When you have considered all of these things entirely, meditate on whether to say goodbye to them you still want to obtain serenity, freedom and peace of mind. Otherwise, do not come here. Do not do like children, wanting to be once a philosopher, again a publican, then a speaker and finally one of César's officers. These papers are not conditioned. You must be one kind of man, good or bad. You must cultivate, either your own domain faculty, or external things. You must dedicate yourself either to things that are within you, or to those that are outside of you; that is: you must choose between being a philosopher or someone from the vulgar.

30. Duties are measured universally by relationships. Is anyone a father? If it is, this implies that the children must at some time take care of him, must obey him in everything, listen patiently to his counterclaims, his corrections. Will you tell me he is a bad father? Who told you that Nature, when a father gave you, was forced to give it to you?

And this does not refer only to your father. Is your brother unfair? Well, keep your situation about him. Do not consider what he does but what you do to keep your free will in a state according to Nature. No one can hurt you if you don't consent. They will only hurt you if you think you have been hurt. In this way, therefore, by applying the idea to a neighbor, a citizen or a general, you can establish the corresponding duties if you get used to considering the different relationships.

31. Rest assured that the essential piety towards the gods consists in forming a correct concept of them, believing that they exist and that they govern the universe with goodness and justice. Take the firm resolve to obey and abide by them, following them voluntarily in all events and considering these as produced by the most perfect of intelligences. In this way you will never doubt the gods, nor accuse them of having forsaken you.

But there is only one way to do this: by withdrawing from those things that are not under your control and seeing both good and evil only in those that are. Because if you assume good or bad some of the things you do not control, when you become disillusioned with what you want or incur in what you would have wanted to avoid, you will necessarily have to blame and hate those who caused you. Because every animal is naturally constituted to avoid and flee both from what can cause harm and from the causes of the harmful; and by the same principle, every animal has the tendency to pursue and want both what benefits it and the causes of the beneficial.

Thus, it is impossible for those who believe themselves injured by someone to feel sympathy for those who hurt them, just as it is impossible for them to be glad for the wound itself. Hence also, sometimes the son curses the father when he does not impart what is necessary for his good and imagining that the Empire is a good was what caused the enmity between Polynices and Eteocles. Thus,
también, es que el esposo, el marinero, el comerciante y todos los que pierden mujer e hijos maldicen a los dioses. Porque allí en dónde está el interés también está la piedad. De modo que, quien regula con cuidado sus deseos y sus aversiones como corresponde, por el mismo principio también se preocupa por ser piadoso. Pues cada uno tiene la obligación de honrar a los dioses conforme a las costumbres de su país, con pureza, sin descuido, sin negligencia, sin mezquindad y sin reticencia.

Notas :
Polinices y Eteocles : eran hijos de los reyes de Tebas. Cuando su padre murió, los dos hermanos se enfrentaron en una guerra en la que ambos murieron.
Piedad : ( pietas ) : entendida aquí en su acepción original como virtud que inspira, en primer lugar y por el amor a Dios, una devoción a las cosas santas, y, en segundo lugar y por amor al prójimo, actos de amor y compasión. (Cf. Diccionario de la Real Academia).

32. Cuando recurras a los augures recuerda que ignoras lo que ha de suceder – ya que por eso los consultas – pero la naturaleza de lo que ocurrirá es algo que sabes, al menos si eres un filósofo. Porque si es algo que no depende de ti, de ninguna manera puede ser ni bueno ni malo. Por lo tanto, no le lleves al augur ni deseo ni aversión ya que, si lo haces, te le acercarás temblando. Adquiere primero un conocimiento claro de que todo acontecimiento, sea de la clase que fuere, te es indiferente y no significa nada para ti porque siempre estará en tu poder aprovecharlo para bien y nadie puede impedírtelo. Acércate luego con confianza a los dioses y considéralos tus consejeros. Luego, cuando te haya sido dado el consejo, recuerda qué clase de consejeros has consultado y el consejo de quién ignorarás si desobedeces.

Recurre al oráculo, como Sócrates lo aconsejó, en aquellos casos en los que toda la cuestión se refiere al azar y no puede ser entendida ni por la razón ni por ningún otro arte. Por consiguiente, cuando nuestro deber es compartir el peligro con un amigo o ir en defensa de la patria, es improcedente consultar al oráculo sobre si debemos – o no – cumplir con ese deber. Pues, aunque el augur nos presagie que el hado nos es desfavorable, esto significa tan sólo que hay una muerte, una mutilación o un exilio en nuestro futuro. Pero poseemos raciocinio y éste, aun a pesar de los riesgos, nos dirige hacia el más grande de los oráculos – el dios Pytheo – quien expulsó de su templo a quienes no socorrieron a un amigo cuando éste estaba siendo asesinado por otra persona.

Notas :
Pytheo : Según la mitología griega, Piteo era el rey de Trecén. Se dice que fue tan sabio que comprendió las profecías de Egeo mientras, para todos los demás, las mismas resultaron incomprensibles..

33. Asígnate una conducta que puedas mantener tanto en forma privada como en público.

Calla la mayor parte del tiempo, o bien habla sólo lo necesario y con pocas palabras. Podemos, sin embargo, entablar un diálogo moderado si se llega a dar la ocasión, pero abstengámonos de hacerlo sobre cuestiones comunes tales como gladiadores, carreras de caballos, campeones de atletismo o fiestas, que son los temas vulgares de conversación. Pero, principalmente, no hablemos sobre otras personas; así evitaremos reproches, alabanzas y comparaciones. Por lo tanto, si te es posible, dirige la conversación con los demás hacia temas apropiados y, si no puedes hacerlo, guarda silencio.

No te r as como un desaforado, ni siempre, ni constantemente.

Evita los juramentos. Si puedes, no jures nunca; si no puedes, lo menos que te sea posible.

Evita los espect culos p blicos y vulgares. Si ocasionalmente debes asistir a ellos, vigila tu comportamiento a fin de que no caigas imperceptiblemente en actitudes groseras. Ten por seguro que, por m s ntegra y sana que sea una persona, si conversa con un compa ero infectado, terminar infectado l tambi n.

De las cosas relacionadas con el cuerpo, tales como carne, bebidas, vestimenta, casas y criados, aprovisi nate tan s lo de lo necesario. Rechaza y lib rate de todo lo relacionado con la ostentaci ny el lujo.

En la medida de lo posible, prescinde del placer de las mujeres hasta que est s casado; y si gozas de ese placer, hazlo legalmente. Pero no te vanaglories de tu comportamiento ni critiques a quienes viven de otra manera.

Si te comentan que alguien ha hablado mal de ti, no te tomes el trabajo de negar lo que ha dicho. Responde simplemente: Es que no conoce mis otros defectos. De conocerlos, hubiera hablado mucho m sy peor.

No es necesario que concurras con frecuencia a los espect culos p blicos; pero si se presenta una ocasi n apropiada para que lo hagas, no parezcas m s sol cito con otros de lo que eres contigo mismo, esto es: toma las cosas simplemente como son y que el vencedor sea el que ha vencido; de este modo no tendr s dificultades. Evita por completo las aclamaciones, las burlas y las
emociones vulgares. Y cuando te retires no hagas largos comentarios sobre lo que ha sucedido y sobre lo que no contribuye en nada a tu propia educaci n. De otro modo, por medio de tus comentarios dar as a conocer que has quedado indebidamente impresionado con la vulgaridad del espect culo.

No vayas por propia iniciativa a los ensayos de los poetas y los oradores, ni aceptes f cilmente una invitaci n para hacerlo. Pero si concurres, mant n tu compostura y tu calma, evitando al mismo tiempo parecer malhumorado.

Si conversas con alguien, y especialmente con una persona de mayor nivel, imag nate c mo se hubieran comportado S crates o Zen n en una situaci n similar. De esa forma no perder s la oportunidad de aprovechar correctamente todo lo que se diga.

Si vas a una audiencia con alguien que est en el poder, imag nate que no lo hallar s en su casa, que no te permitir pasar, que no te abrir la puerta, que te ignorar . Si aun a pesar de ello es tu deber concurrir, soporta lo que suceda y nunca te digas: No vali la pena . Porque esto es vulgar y propio del hombre deslumbrado por las cosas externas.

En reuniones y conversaciones evita mencionar en forma excesiva y frecuente tus haza as y los peligros que has enfrentado. Por m s agradable que sea para ti mencionar los riesgos que has corrido, no necesariamente es igual de agradable para los dem s el escuchar tus aventuras. Del mismo modo, no te esfuerces por hacer re ra los dem s. sta es una cuesti n resbaladiza que puede hacerte caer en la vulgaridad y, aparte de ello, hacerte perder la estima de tus conocidos. Igual de peligrosos son los intentos de tratar temas indecentes. Por lo tanto, cuando suceda algo as y si hay una oportunidad adecuada para hacerlo, censura al que comienza a hablar de ello o bien, al menos, guarda silencio y muestra tu desagrado con la expresi n de tu rostro.

34. Si te asalta la promesa de alg n placer, cu date de no dejarte llevar por ella; deja que la situaci n aguarde tu decisi ny proc rate alguna demora. Luego repres ntate dos momentos: aqu l durante el cual gozar s de ese placer y aqu l durante el cual te arrepentirás de haberlo gozado. Hecho esto, en contraposición con lo anterior, imagínate cómo te sentirás si te abstienes. Y si aun así llegas a la conclusión que puedes gozar razonablemente de ese placer, no te dejes dominar por su seducción y por su fuerza agradable y atractiva; considera que lo más excelso de todo placer es el saber que se lo ha dominado y vencido.

35. Cuando hagas algo que, según tu mejor criterio, debe ser hecho, nunca tengas vergüenza de que te vean haciéndolo, aun cuando todo el mundo pueda formarse una idea equivocada de lo que haces. Porque, si no has de obrar rectamente, desiste de la acción misma; pero si tu obrar es recto, ¿por qué habrías de temer a quienes te juzgan en forma equivocada.

36. Así como la proposición “O bien es de día, o bien es de noche” es muy cierta formulada con partícula disyuntiva y completamente falsa con partícula conjuntiva, del mismo modo el tomar la porción más grande en un banquete es muy apropiado para el apetito corporal pero completamente inconsistente con el espíritu social de una reunión. Por lo tanto, cuando comas con otros, ten presente no sólo el valor que para tu cuerpo tienen las cosas colocadas sobre la mesa, sino el valor del comportamiento que se le debe a la persona que ofrece el banquete.

37. Si has asumido un cargo superior a tus fuerzas, no sólo tendrás un mal desempeño en él sino que perderás el que hubieras podido ejercer con éxito.

38. Cuando caminas tienes cuidado de no pisar un clavo o de no torcerte en pié. De la misma manera, cuídate de no dañar la facultad que gobierna tu mente. Si respetamos esto en cada acción, todo lo que emprendamos lo haremos con mayor seguridad.

39. Para cada uno, el cuerpo es la medida de lo que le corresponde, así como el pié es la medida del calzado. Por lo cual, si te
limitas a ello, mantendrás la medida; pero si vas más allá de ello, si en el calzado excedes la medida de tu pié, pretenderás primero un calzado de oro, luego de púrpura y luego otro cubierto de piedras preciosas. Una vez que hayas excedido la medida adecuada ya no sabrás dónde está el límite.

40. A partir de los catorce años a las mujeres se las halaga con el título de “doncellas”. Al percibir que se las considera tan sólo
calificadas para darle placer a los hombres, comienzan a adornarse ya poner todas sus esperanzas en su apariencia. Por ello, deberíamos esforzarnos por hacerles ver que las apreciamos, no por sus ornamentos, sino porque son decentes, modestas y discretas.

41. Es un indicio de falta de genio el dedicarle demasiado tiempo a las cosas relacionadas con el cuerpo como el perder un tiempo exagerado en ejercicios físicos, en comer, en beber y en las demás funciones corporales. Todo ello debería ser practicado en forma circunstancial y moderada. Nuestra mayor atención debería estar centrada en el entendimiento.

42. Si una persona te perjudica o habla mal de ti, recuerda que actúa suponiendo que está bien actuar así. No es posible pensar en que actuaría según lo que te parece bien a ti pero no le parece bien a él. Por lo tanto, si está juzgando a partir de una falsa apariencia, es él quien se perjudica porque él es quien se engaña. Porque si alguien supone que una proposición verdadera es falsa, la proposición no dejará de ser verdadera, pero el que la supuso falsa se perjudicará por su error. Partiendo, pues, de estos principios, tolera con paciencia a la persona que te injuria y, en cada una de esas ocasiones, dirás tan sólo: “Así le pareció a él”.

43. Todo tiene dos caras; siendo que una de ellas es soportable y la otra no lo es. Si tu hermano actúa de un modo injusto, no te
aferres a esa acción por la cara de la injusticia porque por ella no lo podrías soportar. Considera la otra cara de la cuestión: es tu hermano y os habéis criado juntos. De esta forma habrás considerado el asunto por el lado en que se lo puede sobrellevar.

44. Los siguientes razonamientos no se condicen: “Soy más rico que tú, por lo tanto soy mejor”; “Soy más elocuente que tú, por lo tanto soy mejor”. Lo que se condice es más bien lo siguiente: “Soy más rico que tú, por lo tanto mis propiedades son mayores que las tuyas”; “Soy más elocuente que tú, por lo tanto mi estilo es mejor que el tuyo”. Sin embargo, después de todo, tú no eres ni una propiedad ni un estilo.

45. ¿Alguien se lava en muy poco tiempo? No digas que se lava mal sino que se lava rápido. ¿Alguien toma una gran cantidad de vino? No digas que no sabe beber, simplemente di que toma mucho. A menos que conozcas la razón por la cual alguien actúa de determinada manera ¿cómo puedes saber si actúa mal? Actuando de esa forma no correrás el riesgo de opinar guiado por las
apariencias sino guiado solamente por lo que has comprendido bien.

46. No digas nunca que eres un filósofo ni te pongas a hablar extensamente ante ignorantes sobre los principios que sustentas; limítate a actuar conforme a dichos principios. Así, en un banquete no te pongas a hablar sobre como se debe comer sino come como se debe. Recuerda que fue de esta manera que Sócrates evitó toda ostentación. Y cuando se le acercaban personas pidiéndole que las recomendara a algún filósofo, él iba y las recomendaba; tan poco le importaba que lo pasaran por alto.

De modo que si los ignorantes se ponen a hablar de problemas filosóficos en tu presencia, guarda silencio todo lo que te sea posible. Es muy peligroso vomitar lo que todavía no has digerido. Y si alguno te dice que no sabes nada y no te sientes ofendido por ello, ten la seguridad de que estás en el buen camino. Las ovejas no vomitan el pasto para mostrarle a los pastores cuánto han
comido; digieren la comida por dentro y por fuera producen lana y leche. Por lo tanto, procede de similar manera y no expongas tus principios a los ignorantes; muéstrales el comportamiento que producen luego de haber sido digeridos.

47. Si has aprendido a satisfacer las necesidades de tu cuerpo con poco, no te vanaglories de ello. Si sólo tomas agua no te pongas a decir en cada ocasión: “Yo tomo agua”. Considera primero cuanto más frugales y pacientes en el infortunio que nosotros son los pobres. Pero si alguna vez te dedicas al trabajo intenso, hazlo por ti mismo y no para exhibirlo al mundo entero. No trates de llamar la atención con ello. Si estás muy sediento, enjuágate la boca con un poco de agua fría y no se lo digas a nadie.

48. La condición y característica de una persona vulgar es que nunca espera ni beneficio ni perjuicio por causas propias sino siempre por causas externas. La condición y la característica del filósofo es que espera todo beneficio y todo perjuicio tan sólo de si mismo. Al hombre culto se lo reconoce por no censurar a nadie, no alabar a nadie y no acusar a nadie. Es alguien que no habla de sí mismo haciéndose el importante o pretendiendo saber algo. Si en cualquier situación tiene dificultades o fracasos, sólo se acusa a sí mismo, Si es alabado, secretamente se ríe de la persona que lo alaba y, si es criticado, no se defiende; pero se mueve con la precaución de los convalecientes, temiendo mover algo antes de que esté perfectamente curado. El sabio suprime dentro de sí todo deseo, transfiere su aversión sólo a las cosas que menoscaban el empleo adecuado de su libre albedrío. Cuando ejerce un poder
activo sobre cualquier cosa lo hace siempre de un modo muy moderado. No le importa parecer estúpido o ignorante y, en una palabra, se considera a sí mismo como un adversario emboscado.

49. Cuando alguien se vanaglorie de su capacidad para comprender e interpretar los libros de Crisipo piensa lo siguiente: “Si Crisipo no hubiera escrito en forma oscura, esta persona no tendría de qué envanecerse. Pues ¿qué es lo que busco? Mi objetivo es comprender a la Naturaleza y seguirla. Cuando pregunto quién la ha interpretado, encuentro a Crisipo y recurro a él.; y si no lo entiendo busco a alguien que me lo interprete.”

Pero hasta aquí no he hecho nada loable, porque cuando haya encontrado ese intérprete, todavía me faltará lo principal, que es seguir sus instrucciones; pues si me quedo admirando tan sólo la interpretación, no me convertiré en filósofo sino en literato. Tan sólo que, en lugar de explicar a Homero, disertaré sobre Crisipo. Por lo tanto, si alguien me pide que le lea a Crisipo, lo que me da vergüenza no es no entenderle, sino que no puedo demostrar que mis actos se hallan de acuerdo y en consonancia con su discursos.

Notas :
Crisipo de Soli : (Siglo III AC) fue uno de los más grandes estoicos. Discípulo de Cleantes es considerado uno de los máximos exponentes de la filosofía estoica. Diógenes Laercio llegó a decir de él: “Si los dioses se ocuparan de dialéctica, utilizarían la dialéctica de Crisipo”.
Homero : (Siglo VIII AC) con este nombre se conoce a un poeta y rapsoda griego al que se le atribuyen las principales poesías épicas griegas: la Ilíada y la Odisea.

50. Sean cuales fueren las reglas morales que te has propuesto, respétalas como si fuesen leyes, como si cometieses sacrilegio al
violar cualquiera de ellas. No te preocupes por lo que digan de ti porque, al fin y al cabo, eso no es algo que te deba importar.

¿Cuánto tiempo más piensas tardar en ser digno de los más elevados progresos y en seguir los dictados de la razón? Has recibido los principios filosóficos con los cuales debes estar familiarizado. ¿Qué otro maestro estás esperando para comenzar a enmendarte? Ya no eres un adolescente sino un adulto. Por consiguiente, si continúas siendo negligente y perezoso, y siempre aplazas las cosas añadiendo excusas a más excusas, posponiendo el día en que te dedicarás a ti mismo, se te pasará la vida sin darte cuenta y, sin haber progresado, seguirás siendo alguien del vulgo hasta el día de tu muerte.

En este mismo instante, pues, piensa que eres digno de vivir como un adulto que se perfecciona. Considera todo lo óptimo como una ley inviolable. Y si se te presenta un momento de dolor o de placer, de gloria o de desgracia, recuerda que el combate es ahora. Ahora es cuando comienza la Olimpíada, y no puede ser postergada.

Si te dejas vencer una vez y te entregas, tu progreso se habr perdido; procediendo de la forma contraria, lo mantendr s. As es como S crates se volvi perfecto, aprovech ndolo todo para ser mejor y no escuchando otro consejo que el de la raz n. Si bien todav a no eres un S crates, debes, sin embargo, vivir como alguien que se ha propuesto ser como l.

51. La primera ym s indispensable cuesti n en filosof a es la aplicaci n de los principios morales tales como: No mentir s . La segunda es la de las demostraciones, tales como: Cual es el origen de nuestra obligaci n de no mentir . La tercera consolida y articula las primeras dos estableciendo, por ejemplo: Cual es el origen de esta demostraci n . Porque, qu es una demostraci n? Qu es una consecuencia? Qu es contradicci n? Qu es la verdad? Qu es falso? La tercera cuesti n es, pues, necesaria para la segunda y la segunda para la primera. Pero la m s necesaria de todas es la primera y es a ella que debemos atenernos.

Y, sin embargo, por lo general, hacemos justamente lo contrario: perdemos todo nuestro tiempo en la tercera cuesti n, descuidando por completo la primera. Por lo que mentimos, e inmediatamente nos disponemos a explicar c mo se demuestra que no est bien mentir.

52. En toda ocasi n deber amos tener siempre a mano las siguientes m ximas:

J piter y D cima, conducidme doquier vuestros decretos han establecido mi puesto.
Obedezco alegremente, y de no hacerlo, malvado y arruinado igual tendr que obedecer.
Cleantes.

Quien obedece correctamente al Destino sabio es entre los hombres porque conoce las leyes del cielo.
Eur pides, Frag.965

Y este tercero:

Oh Crit n, si as place a los dioses, deja que as sea.

Anito y Melito pueden matarme, por cierto; pero hacerme da o, no pueden.
Plat n: Crit ny Apolog a de S crates .

Autor: Ep cteto.

Compilado por Lucio Flavio Arrio hacia a o 135 DC.
Traducido de la versi n inglesa de Elizabeth Carter.

Biograf a: Wikipedia.